User:Richard E. Hartman:Courses:Learning and Memory: Difference between revisions
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**Eichenbaum Ch 4 | **Eichenbaum Ch 4 | ||
**Scoville & Milner (1957, Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry) [http://dl.getdropbox.com/u/163597/class/Scoville_1957_Journal%20of%20Neurology%20Neurosurgery%20%26%20Psychiatry.pdf Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions] | **Scoville & Milner (1957, Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry) [http://dl.getdropbox.com/u/163597/class/Scoville_1957_Journal%20of%20Neurology%20Neurosurgery%20%26%20Psychiatry.pdf Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions] | ||
**Zola-Morgan et al. (1986, Journal of Neuroscience) [http://dl.getdropbox.com/u/163597/class/Zola-Morgan_1986_J%20Neurosci.pdf Human amnesia and the medial temporal region: enduring memory impairment following a bilateral lesion limited to field CA1 of the hippocampus] | |||
**Rempel-Clower et al. (1996, Journal of Neuroscience) [http://dl.getdropbox.com/u/163597/class/Rempel-Clower_1996_J%20Neurosci.pdf Three cases of enduring memory impairment after bilateral damage limited to the hippocampal formation] | |||
*Class 5 - Animal models of declarative learning and memory | |||
**Eichenbaum Ch 5 | |||
**Morris et al. (1982, Nature) [http://dl.getdropbox.com/u/163597/class/Morris_1982_Nature.pdf Place navigation impaired in rats with hippocampal lesions] | **Morris et al. (1982, Nature) [http://dl.getdropbox.com/u/163597/class/Morris_1982_Nature.pdf Place navigation impaired in rats with hippocampal lesions] | ||
==Readings for student presentations== | |||
==Recommended readings== | ==Recommended readings== | ||
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***CS | ***CS | ||
***US | ***US | ||
** | **extinction | ||
**spontaneous recovery | **spontaneous recovery | ||
**generalization | **generalization | ||
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***chaining | ***chaining | ||
*similarities and differences between classical and operant conditioning | *similarities and differences between classical and operant conditioning | ||
===CLASS 3=== | ===CLASS 3=== | ||
*crash course in neurophysiology and neuroplasticity | *crash course in neurophysiology and neuroplasticity | ||
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***long-term depression | ***long-term depression | ||
===CLASS 4=== | |||
*“Hebbian” rule | |||
**synaptic correlation > LTP | |||
**lack of synaptic correlation > LTD | |||
*structural changes in dendrites | |||
**role of dendritic spines | |||
*upregulation of receptors on dendrite | |||
*retrograde messengers | |||
*LTP and LTM | |||
**hippocampus | |||
**1 trial learning | |||
**long-lasting | |||
**specific | |||
**associative | |||
**LTP and “real learning” use similar biochemical mechanisms | |||
*NMDA receptors, neuroplasticity, and susceptibility to excitotoxic damage | |||
*Effects of hippocampal damage in humans | |||
**patient H.M. | |||
***brain surgery | |||
***anterograde amnesia | |||
***retrograde amnesia | |||
****lateralization of hippocampal functions | |||
****damage limited to CA1 | |||
****deficits in specific types of learning / memory | |||
*****types of learning / memory that are spared after bilateral hippocampal damage | |||
===CLASS 5 (detailed)=== | |||
* memory for context and relations between stimuli - mediated in part by the hippocampal formation | |||
* memory for simple stimulus-stimulus associations (e.g., simple object discrimination) - mediated by other (more “primitive”?) neural systems | |||
* Complex vs Simple (explicit vs. implicit, declarative vs. procedural, recognition vs. habit, configural vs. simple) | |||
* Simple: procedural learning / skills, classical / operant conditioning, non-associative, priming (single presentation of a stimulus facilitates its recall) | |||
* “Priming” involves activating the necessary perceptual and identification processes involved in information processing before they are actually needed | |||
* diseases associated w/ procedural learning: Parkinson’s, cerebellar damage | |||
* Learning how – process by which knowledge is acquired | |||
** largely independent of conscious awareness | |||
** Cannot be verbally explained | |||
** Alterations in the connections between and within related brain structures are likely behind procedural skills | |||
** Performance of skills is task-specific | |||
** Improvement in performance or skills is only method of conveyance | |||
** H.M.’s / others implicit learning / memory is as good as “normal” | |||
*** had no memory of ever performing the task before and required instructions each time he performed the task | |||
* “Declarative” ~ learning that – largely dependent on conscious awareness | |||
** (by definition) verbally explained | |||
** episodic | |||
** semantic | |||
** patients w/ damage to the medial temporal lobes have deficiencies with this type of learning | |||
** Contextual - involves “tying together” relations between many stimuli in the environment | |||
*** Reaux Sham Beaux | |||
* Adaptive control of thought theory | |||
** Declarative stage: | |||
*** Learning factual knowledge of the nature of task | |||
** Transition (Knowledge compilation stage): | |||
*** after additional practice, performance speed increases | |||
*** less conscious “guidance” is required | |||
*** groups of rules / operations are chunked / compiled & stored in LTM | |||
*** performance starts to depend more on LTM than working | |||
*** working memory is now “freed up” | |||
*** increases efficiency of task | |||
** Procedural stage: With more practice, task is performed almost automatically | |||
*** Major variable – practice (expertise) | |||
*** Optimal learning conditions: Spacing / Generation effects / Practice / Develop strategies | |||
* studying spatial working memory in the radial arm maze | |||
** Win-shift paradigm - each identical arm was baited at its end | |||
** most efficient strategy is to visit each arm only once per trial | |||
** during each trial, the rat had to remember which arms it had visited based on their relation with extra-maze cues | |||
** normal rats can learn and retain this strategy almost perfectly | |||
** bilateral disruption of the main hippocampal input (entorhinal cortex) and output (fimbria-fornix) pathways OR intrinsic hippocampal circuitry - performed at chance levels | |||
** lesions in other brain areas (cortex, caudate nucleus, amygdala) - no retention deficits | |||
* studying spatial memory in the Morris water maze | |||
** hippocampal-damaged rats were profoundly impaired on the relational, spatial-cue-based navigation, but normal during acquisition of the cued condition | |||
* studying spatial memory with the spatial alternation task | |||
** rats were trained to find water at the end of one arm of a T-maze | |||
*** forced run - one arm contained water and the other arm was blocked | |||
*** choice run - the opposite arm contained water and either arm could be chosen | |||
**** correct response - choose the arm blocked on the previous forced run | |||
***** only in the context of the previous (forced run) trial could the correct choice be made. | |||
****** damage to bilateral hippocampal OR amygdaloid lesions | |||
******* hippocampus - performed at chance levels | |||
******* amygdala - displayed no impairment (performed at control levels) | |||
* removal of the hippocampus soon after birth in rats results in a loss of spatial abilities through adulthood | |||
** this suggests that there is no backup (redundant) system for this type of information processing | |||
* spatial learning requires only a small portion of functional tissue in the dorsal hippocampus | |||
===CLASS 6 (detailed)=== | |||
*we can learn more about a stimulus when it is easily perceived | |||
**increased experience with stimuli allows such enhanced perceptions to occur | |||
**“the more you know, the more you can learn” | |||
**perceptual fluency – the ability to quickly distinguish one stimuli from another | |||
*presentation of varying degrees of contrasting stimulus categories leads to effective understanding of items | |||
**once easy discrimination can be made, more subtle ones are easier | |||
**learning to discriminate between stimuli generally requires some type of “attention” | |||
*nervous system is a big mass of biological tissue composed of interconnected neurons | |||
**parallel and serial networks within massively parallel networks | |||
**hierarchy: Spinal cord / Hindbrain / Midbrain / Diencephalon / Basal ganglia / Neocortex | |||
***primary motor / sensory | |||
***secondary motor / sensory | |||
***association | |||
*individual cortical neurons arranged into layers and columns | |||
*6 layers: | |||
**layer 4 is mostly sensory inputs (lots of dendrites) | |||
**layer 5/6 are mostly outputs (lots of long axons out) | |||
**columns are arranged “topographically” into “maps” of various parts of our body | |||
**each mapped area processes certain aspects of incoming data before passing it to other areas | |||
*sensations cause changes in spatiotemporal patterns of the cortical activity | |||
** we experience this as our “perception” of reality | |||
*receptors are specialized neurons for transducing information from the physical environment into chemical and electrical signals (sensations) | |||
*Receptive sheet | |||
**receptors innervate very specific regions | |||
**area which a sensory system innervates = receptive sheet | |||
**somatosensory receptive sheet is total body surface | |||
**visual receptive sheet is the retina | |||
*Receptive field - that portion of the environment to which a receptor (or cortical neuron) will respond | |||
**each rod or cone has a precise receptive field | |||
**each subsequent neuron also has a receptive field | |||
**convergence / divergence at each subsequent synapse creates larger / more complex receptive fields | |||
**increased coding and abstraction of “information | |||
*receptors send info about the external world through the thalamus (sensory relay station) to several areas of primary sensory cortex | |||
*What is the nature of “information” sent to the cortex? | |||
**Qualitative - “what is it?” | |||
***labeled line - chain of neurons that results in a sensation | |||
**Quantitative - “how much?” | |||
***frequency coding - rate of APs | |||
***population coding - # of receptors firing | |||
**Adaptation - response of a neuron to constant stimulation | |||
***phasic - quickly adapting | |||
***tonic - slowly adapting | |||
*By the time info gets to cortex, some elaborate processing is already taking place | |||
**distinct regions of cortex respond (increase firing rate) to small, specific region of the sensory field | |||
**cortical neurons have overlapping receptive fields | |||
**adjacent neurons represent adjacent parts of the field | |||
**receptive fields are organized in a “topographic map” of the sensory field | |||
*in addition to overlapping topographic map of the receptive sheet, certain neurons also respond preferentially to specific trigger features | |||
*individual columns arranged into microcircuits of ~1 mm sq hypercolumns | |||
**ocular dominance columns | |||
**orientation columns | |||
**“color” blob | |||
***responses of individual neurons are probabilistic (and relatively unimportant) | |||
*within each sensory area, there exists a hierarchy of larger circuits representing increasingly more complex processing of incoming sensory information | |||
**visual cortex encompasses almost all of the occipital lobe and parts of the parietal & temporal | |||
**serial and parallel connections | |||
**there is as much backward flow as forward flow | |||
**early, lower, “upstream” areas | |||
***identifying basic properties of stimuli | |||
****orientation | |||
****spatial frequency | |||
****speed | |||
****color | |||
****location | |||
**later, higher, “down-stream” levels of processing | |||
***“maps” get fuzzier higher in the cortical hierarchy | |||
***response properties of these cells more complex | |||
***arise from combinations of inputs from lower levels | |||
****what (ventral) streams - “categorization” (faces, hands, etc.) | |||
****where (dorsal / parietal) - localizing in 3D space | |||
****higher levels of processing networks connect with each other in association cortex (multimodal, association cortex) | |||
****these multimodal areas send outputs to areas in the frontal, temporal and parietal cortices AND the hippocampus | |||
*cells change firing patterns with experience | |||
**less activity for repeated stimuli | |||
**processing is “easier” / less effort | |||
**not only “cellular” mechanisms, but “network”-level mechanisms | |||
*Learning / Memory is completely intertwined with sensory / perceptual processing | |||
**early experience (both external and internal) guides the development of the general organization of cortical circuitry | |||
**experience driven “tuning” / modification | |||
**response properties are plastic | |||
**like muscles, using circuits changes their operation | |||
**experience alters the structure and function of the circuits | |||
*constantly changing dynamic chemical bath | |||
**this ball of cells detects stuff in the environment that causes transient changes in the pulsation frequencies | |||
**produces constantly changing dynamic electrical patterns | |||
**sensations cause changes in spatiotemporal patterns of the cortex – we experience this as our “perception” of reality | |||
**different networks naturally tend to “pulse” at different frequencies | |||
**areas that are active at the same time tend to become more strongly connected (and vice versa) | |||
**HEBB - “fire together / wire together” via functional and structural changes | |||
**activity in 1 area is more likely to induce activity in connected areas | |||
*the biological basis of learning is thought to depend in part upon the ability of neurons to modify their synaptic connections within neural circuits based on experience | |||
*memory retrieval happens when we re-experience same or similar spatiotemporal patterns in cortical activity | |||
*cortex is “reorganized” during “learning”: | |||
**train specific fingers to perform sensory tasks | |||
*Learning / Memory is the behavioral and psychological consequence of changes in sensory / information processing | |||
**psychophysical monism | |||
**neurons are adaptive - can shift or modify response to stimuli based on previous experiences with that stimuli | |||
===CLASS 7=== | |||
* ways to categorize learning and memory | |||
* stages of "remembering" | |||
* Nice historical view of memory: | |||
** primary | |||
** secondary | |||
* multistore memory model | |||
** dual (tri) storage system: | |||
*** sensory | |||
**** capacity | |||
**** duration | |||
**** mechanisms | |||
*** short-term | |||
**** capacity | |||
**** duration | |||
**** mechanisms | |||
*** working memory | |||
**** roles | |||
**** capacity | |||
**** duration | |||
**** mechanisms | |||
**** regions of PFC that control working memory processes | |||
**** central executive and sensory / episodic buffers model | |||
*** incidental learning | |||
*** speed of processing | |||
*** working memory in animal studies | |||
===CLASS 8=== | |||
* encoding memories | |||
** the distributed cortical engram | |||
** cognitive model of encoding - schemas | |||
** auto-associative neural networks | |||
** things that effect the encoding of memories | |||
** consolidation in LTM | |||
*** 2 phases | |||
*** role of the hippocampus | |||
**** parahippocampal buffer | |||
**** comparator function | |||
**** recording episodic memories | |||
**** activity during sleep | |||
**** damage leads to lack of consolidation | |||
***** partial vs. total | |||
*** storage "site" | |||
*** hippocampus vs. cortex: | |||
**** capacity | |||
**** plasticity | |||
===CLASS 9=== | |||
*Hippocampus vs. neocortex | |||
**capacity | |||
**plasticity speed | |||
**plasticity “longevity” | |||
*Interaction of hippocampal networks with cortical networks | |||
*final repository of a memory | |||
*LTM organized by “schemas” | |||
*Initial role of hippocampus | |||
*memory retrieval | |||
**characteristics | |||
**testing effects | |||
**prospective memory | |||
**false memories | |||
*forgetting - possible mechanisms | |||
*“dissociations” suggest different biological systems | |||
**double dissociations | |||
**at least two distinct functional memory systems | |||
***operate simultaneously and in parallel | |||
***in each proposed system: | |||
****a simple yet gradually learned form of memory (e.g., procedural, simple associative) | |||
*****brain areas | |||
****a more complex but rapidly learned form (e.g., declarative, spatial, explicit, contextual associative) | |||
*****brain areas | |||
**“Mono-hierarchy” idea | |||
**model circuit illustrating how sensations may interact with various neural structures to form a memory of episodes and facts | |||
*Procedural Memory | |||
**characteristics | |||
**brain areas | |||
***motor cortex | |||
***cerebellum | |||
***basal ganglia | |||
**effects of brain damage | |||
*adaptive control of thought theory | |||
===CLASS 10=== | |||
canceled due to "swinesque" flu symptoms | |||
===CLASS 11=== | |||
*two neural “learning” systems display different developmental time-courses. | |||
**developmental dissociation of habituation from sensitization | |||
*development of sensory systems and simple associative learning mediating by those systems | |||
*developmental dissociation may result from a caudal-to-rostral sequence of maturation | |||
*the ability to form configural / relational associations emerges later | |||
**evidence from studies of younger versus older rats | |||
**evidence from studies of younger versus older human children | |||
***facilitation of configural performance in younger children | |||
*development of the hippocampus in rats and humans | |||
**correlation with ability to form behavioral configural associations | |||
***infantile amnesia | |||
**effects of neonatal brain damage in general | |||
***effects of neonatal hippocampal damage | |||
===CLASS 12=== | |||
*What are emotions? | |||
**Response to a stimulus | |||
**A state or feeling, consisting of a pattern of reactions | |||
*Two “basic” emotions - subjective valences toward a stimulus | |||
*Emotions often based on perceptions of the environment | |||
*Difficult to study | |||
*Limbic system | |||
*Papez circuit | |||
**role of hypothalamus | |||
**role of cortex | |||
**role of amygdala | |||
*tests used to study emotional learning in animals | |||
*Individual differences in learning / memory | |||
**genetic predisposition | |||
**environment | |||
**impaired / exceptional ability in a specific domain | |||
**use of strategies | |||
**age | |||
**personality traits | |||
*Verbal learning: | |||
**memorization and retention of lists of words | |||
**verbal learning is not a single process - many different strategies result in verbal learning | |||
*Herman Ebbinghaus: | |||
**studied meaningless consonant-vowel-consonant trigrams | |||
**savings | |||
**forgetting curve | |||
**serial position effect | |||
***mechanisms: | |||
****primacy | |||
****recency | |||
*Paired Associate (PA) Learning | |||
**Cognitive Elaboration | |||
**Relationship Construction Hypothesis | |||
*Free Recall | |||
**organizational heuristics: | |||
***Associative Clustering | |||
***Categorical Clustering | |||
***Subjective Organization | |||
***intrusion errors | |||
*Available vs. Accessible Memories | |||
**tip-of-the-tongue phenomena | |||
**Cued Recall | |||
***cue overload - when there are too many cues given as memory aids | |||
*Recognition and Relearning | |||
**Encoding Specificity | |||
**specific remembering versus general knowing | |||
**Implicit Learning | |||
*Mnemonic devices | |||
**Acronyms | |||
**Keywords | |||
**Narrative Story | |||
**Method of Loci | |||
**Peg Word Method | |||
==Disability accommodation== | ==Disability accommodation== |
Latest revision as of 14:12, 14 June 2010
LLU PSYC 544: Foundations of Learning and Behavior